Russian and Chinese Revolutions: Two Revolutions that Shaped the Modern World

Why in News?

• October has a special place in modern history because two major revolutions are associated with it:
  • The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917.
  • The proclamation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
• Both revolutions transformed their respective countries and influenced politics, anti-colonial movements and debates on socialism across the world.

Russian Revolution, 1917

• Russia entered World War I with deep social and economic problems, including inequality, agrarian tensions and dissatisfaction with Tsarist rule.
• Military defeats, casualties, food shortages and inflation weakened the authority of Tsar Nicholas II.
• The February Revolution of 1917 ended the Romanov dynasty and established a Provisional Government.
• However, the Provisional Government continued the war and failed to immediately address land-related demands.
• At the same time, soviets, or councils of workers and soldiers, emerged as alternative centres of political power.
• Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and demanded an end to the war and the transfer of power to the soviets.
• In October, the Bolsheviks captured important locations in Petrograd and took control of the Winter Palace.
• The new government announced measures concerning peace and land.
• The revolution established the first durable state based on Marxist socialism and influenced debates on workers’ rights, land redistribution, public ownership, education and welfare.
• It also gave ideological support to several anti-colonial and national liberation movements in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Chinese Revolution, 1949

• China’s revolution developed in a different context marked by the fall of the Qing dynasty, political fragmentation, warlordism, foreign intervention and unequal treaties.
• The May Fourth Movement of 1919 encouraged political radicalisation among Chinese intellectuals.
• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was established in 1921.
• After the conflict between Chiang Kai-shek and the communists intensified in 1927, the communist movement increasingly shifted towards the countryside.
• Mao Zedong placed the peasantry at the centre of revolutionary mobilisation.
• Land reform, rural organisation and guerrilla warfare became important elements of the communist strategy.
• The Long March (1934–35) helped the communist forces survive and strengthened Mao’s leadership.
• Resistance against the Japanese invasion further increased the communists’ nationalist appeal.
• After renewed civil war, the Kuomintang was defeated and retreated to Taiwan.
• On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China.
• The Chinese Revolution demonstrated that Marxism could be adapted to a predominantly agrarian Asian society, with peasants playing a major revolutionary role.

Russia and China: Similarities and Differences

• The Russian Revolution was centred more strongly on industrial workers, soldiers and soviets.
• The Chinese Revolution relied heavily on peasants, rural mobilisation and prolonged revolutionary struggle.
• Both challenged imperialism and existing systems of political and economic power.
• However, they followed different revolutionary paths, eventually contributing to the Sino-Soviet split.

Impact on India

• The Russian Revolution influenced Indian political thought and the growth of socialist ideas.
• M. N. Roy discussed colonial strategy with Lenin, while Bhagat Singh studied socialist writings.
• Jawaharlal Nehru’s 1927 visit to the Soviet Union influenced his thinking on planning and development.
• India recognised the People’s Republic of China soon after its establishment.
• India later developed the Panchsheel principles with China, although relations deteriorated before the 1962 India-China War.
• India ultimately adopted neither the Soviet nor Chinese political model and instead followed parliamentary democracy and a mixed economy.
• Nevertheless, debates on planning, land reform, public-sector industries, labour and education were influenced by the wider global context created by these revolutions.

Historical Significance

• The Russian and Chinese revolutions influenced debates on:
  • Socialism and communism
  • Land and labour
  • Economic inequality
  • Imperialism and colonialism
  • National sovereignty
  • Education and welfare
• The Soviet Union eventually dissolved in 1991, while China was transformed by the economic reforms initiated under Deng Xiaoping.
• Despite their achievements, both revolutionary experiences also involved major human costs, including political repression, famine and social upheaval.

Practice Question 

Q. With reference to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Chinese Revolution of 1949, consider the following statements:

1. The February Revolution in Russia brought down the Romanov dynasty, but the Provisional Government continued Russia’s participation in World War I. 
2. The Chinese Communist movement increasingly relied on the peasantry, rural mobilisation and guerrilla warfare. 
3. Both revolutions followed essentially the same revolutionary strategy, with industrial workers forming the principal social base of the revolutionary movements. 
4. The Chinese Revolution demonstrated that Marxism could be adapted to the conditions of a predominantly agrarian Asian society. 

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a). 1, 2 and 4 only
(b). 1 and 3 only
(c). 2, 3 and 4 only
(d). 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (a). 1, 2 and 4 only

Explanation

• The February Revolution ended the Romanov dynasty and established the Provisional Government. However, the Provisional Government continued the war. Hence, Statement 1 is correct. 
• The Chinese Communist movement increasingly shifted towards the countryside and relied on peasants, rural mobilisation and guerrilla warfare, particularly under Mao Zedong. Hence, Statement 2 is correct. 
• The two revolutions followed different revolutionary paths. The Russian Revolution was more strongly associated with industrial workers, soldiers and soviets, whereas the Chinese Revolution placed the peasantry and rural mobilisation at the centre. Hence, Statement 3 is incorrect. 
• The Chinese Revolution showed that Marxism could be adapted to a predominantly agrarian Asian society, with peasants playing a major role in revolutionary mobilisation. Hence, Statement 4 is correct.