Underwater Excavations at Poompuhar Reveal New Evidence of Chola Maritime Trade

Underwater Excavations at Poompuhar Reveal New Evidence of Chola Maritime Trade

Why in News?

• An 18-day underwater exploration at Poompuhar, the ancient Chola port city in Tamil Nadu, has revealed fresh evidence of its maritime connections. 
• The excavation was conducted by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology in collaboration with the Indian Maritime University.

Key Findings

• Archaeologists recovered: 
  • A fragment of a West Asian torpedo jar. 
  • Four terracotta ring wells. 
  • More than 250 ceramic fragments. 
• Torpedo jars were used in ancient maritime trade to transport liquids such as wine and olive oil, indicating Poompuhar's links with West Asia and the Mediterranean region. 
• Ring wells found beneath the sea may indicate the presence of an ancient river channel that was later submerged due to coastal erosion and rising sea levels. 

Poompuhar: An Important Chola Port

• Poompuhar, also known as Kaveripoompattinam, is located at the mouth of the Cauvery River in present-day Mayiladuthurai district. 
• It is mentioned in Sangam and post-Sangam literature and is associated with the early Cholas. 
• The settlement is believed to have included Maruvurppakkam, Pattinappakkam and Nalangadi. 
• Historical and archaeological evidence suggests that merchants from different parts of India and Southeast Asia visited the port. 
• Earlier excavations have revealed brick structures, storage jars, terracotta wells and other remains, suggesting that the ancient settlement extended beyond the present shoreline. 

Submergence of Poompuhar

• A substantial part of the ancient settlement is believed to have been lost beneath the sea. 
• Possible explanations include coastal erosion, rising sea levels, floods and a major tsunami. 
• Archaeological studies have suggested the possibility of a tsunami around the 3rd century CE, although scholars differ on the exact cause and extent of Poompuhar's submergence. 

Chola Dynasty:

• The Chola dynasty had a history of more than 1,000 years. 
• It developed from the early Cholas of the Sangam period into a major power in South India and Southeast Asia. 
• Major phases: 
  • Early Cholas: c. 600 BCE–300 CE 
  • Interregnum: c. 300–848 CE 
  • Imperial Cholas: c. 848–1070 CE 
  • Later Cholas: c. 1070–1279 CE 

2. Early Cholas

• Known mainly through Sangam literature. 
• Important rulers included Karikala and Kocengannan. 
• Major centres were Urayur and Kaveripattinam. 
• The Mahavamsa mentions Ellalan, a Chola prince associated with Sri Lanka. 
• Sangam texts contain stories, royal family accounts and praise of kings. 

3. Rise of the Imperial Cholas

• The Cholas regained power under Vijayalaya Chola around 848 CE. 
• Important rulers included Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajaraja I and Rajendra I. 
• They expanded into South India, Sri Lanka, Kalinga and Southeast Asia. 
• Important capitals were Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram. 
• The period saw major growth in temple building, naval power and trade. 

4. Administration

• The king was the central authority in the hereditary monarchy. 
• A Council of Ministers assisted the king. 
• Officials were broadly divided into higher and lower categories. 
• The empire was divided into: 
  • Mandalam: Province 
  • Valanadu: Sub-region 
  • Nadu: Local territorial unit 
  • Village: Managed through local institutions 
• Sabhas played an important role in village administration. 
• The Uthiramerur inscriptions provide evidence of the Kudavolai system, in which eligible members were selected by lot for local committees. 
• Nagaram refers to urban administrative institutions. 
• Taniyur was a large village administered as a separate unit.

5. Economy and Agriculture

• The Kaveri delta was the main agricultural region. 
• Tanks, canals and channels supported irrigation. 
• Paddy was the main crop. 
• Taxes were collected in both produce and money. 
• Important revenue terms included Irai, Kanikadan, Kudimai and Opati. 
• Ports such as Kaveripoompattinam and Nagapattinam supported long-distance trade. 
• Trade connected the Cholas with Southeast Asia, China and Rome. 

6. Military and Navy

• The Chola military included infantry, cavalry and war elephants. 
• Velaikkarar served as elite royal guards. 
• Padimagalir are described as women bodyguards of the king. 
• The Cholas developed a strong naval force. 
• Their navy supported trade and overseas military expeditions. 
• Rajendra Chola I launched the famous 1025 CE campaign against Srivijaya. 
• Chola campaigns reached areas including Sri Lanka, Maldives, Kedah, Palembang and Tambralinga. 

7. Art, Architecture and Literature

• The Chola period was an important phase of Tamil art and culture. 
• The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur is a major example of Chola architecture. 
• Stone and bronze sculpture developed significantly. 
• Tamil literature flourished, along with works on religion and grammar. 
• Periapuranam and Nannul are among the important works associated with the period. 
• Jain and Buddhist literary works were also produced. 
• Chola influence reached parts of Malaysia and Indonesia. 

8. Religion

• Chola rulers strongly supported Shaivism. 
• Temples functioned as religious, social and cultural centres. 
• Nambi Andar Nambi organised the Shaivite canon into eleven books. 
• Vaishnavism also continued during the period. 
• Temple festivals, rituals and land grants strengthened religious institutions. 

9. Decline

• Chola power gradually weakened after Kulothunga Chola I. 
• Succession disputes and internal conflicts weakened central authority. 
• The Pandyas and Hoysalas became increasingly powerful. 
• Continuous wars placed pressure on the empire's resources. 
• By the early 13th century, Chola territories had considerably shrunk. 
• The Cholas were finally absorbed by the Pandyas in 1279 CE. 

Practice Question 

Q. With reference to Poompuhar and the Chola Dynasty, consider the following statements:

1. The discovery of a West Asian torpedo jar fragment at Poompuhar provides evidence of its maritime links with West Asia and the Mediterranean region. 
2. The Kudavolai system, mentioned in the Uthiramerur inscriptions, was associated with the selection of eligible members for local committees. 
3. Velaikkarar were regular units of infantry in the Chola army, while Padimagalir were only women’s groups associated with temples. 
4. The Chola administrative structure included Mandalam, Valanadu and Nadu as successive territorial divisions. 

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only
 (b) 1 and 3 only
 (c) 2, 3 and 4 only
 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only

Explanation:

• The discovery of a West Asian torpedo jar fragment indicates Poompuhar's maritime connections with West Asia and the Mediterranean region. Hence, Statement 1 is Correct. 
• The Kudavolai system is associated with the selection of eligible members by lot for local committees, as indicated by the Uthiramerur inscriptions. Hence, Statement 2 is Correct. 
• Velaikkarar were elite royal guards of the Chola rulers, while Padimagalir are described in the given source as women bodyguards of the king. Therefore, Statement 3 is incorrect.

The Chola territorial structure included Mandalam (province), Valanadu (sub-region) and Nadu (local territorial unit). Hence, Statement 4 is Correct.